Government Communication Capacity and Media Freedom

This K4D rapid literature review focuses on the influence of government communication on the government-media relationship; it does not encompass other avenues through which government is able to affect the media environment, such as legislation, public policy and political culture. The literature covered here comprises a mix of academic literature and policy reports produced by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the World Bank, Centre for Independent Media Assistance (CIMA), and BBC Media Action. The media ecosystem as encompassed by the review includes government, public and private sector media, social media companies, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and citizens (OECD, 2017).

The literature indicates that governments require a positive relationship with the media in order to communicate with the public and build legitimacy for their decisions (OECD, 2016). In turn, media often rely on official government information, especially during war and conflict, and therefore need friendly relations with government to gain access to information (Yuksel, 2013). Nearly all political parties and government agencies employ news managers and spin doctors who are responsible for maximising favourable views of government policy or actions. This observation is reflective of one of the 5 theories (the framing model) Yuksel (2013) puts forth to explain the relationship between government and the media. (Others discussed include the hegemony, propaganda, indexing, and cascade approaches.

The literature highlights, and the review describes, 2 broad programmes that entail support for developing an independent media: open government initiatives sponsored by the OECD, and good governance programmes funded by several donors. However, media support is a small component of these programmes (OECD, 2016; Deane, 2015). Deane (2015) outlines 4 reasons that make it difficult to forge a consensus on development assistance for media:

• Some developing country governments see support for media as part of an aggressive democracy promotion agenda that they resist.
• Developing country governments rarely request support for the development of a free and plural media, and the international development system does not cope well when there is a lack of country ownership of a development strategy.
• There is a lack of evidence on the effectiveness of media support for promoting democracy and governance.
• It is difficult to organise the media to deliver the level of impact that donors desire.

The review found one study, conducted as part of a broader inquiry on the influence of government communication and public trust in the government of the United States (US) (Liu, Horsley, & Yang, 2012), suggesting a positive relationship between media interaction and good coverage of the US government. Specifically, using regression analysis, the study found that interaction with the media (including news releases, news conferences, media interviews, responding to media enquiries, pitching stories to the media and tracking media clips) had a positive effect on media coverage among the subsample of government communicators. This finding indicates that governments may have an incentive to foster good relations with the media.

Other main findings of the review:

• The engagement between elites, the media, and the public is complex and is unlikely to be controlled or dominated by any particular set of actors (Yuksel, 2013).
• In some countries that were transitioning to democracy, development assistance for media has helped to foster media that is critical of the government, resulting in a tense relationship between media and government (Rub, 1996).
• Public media can be used as a medium for disseminating government propaganda (Thabane, n.d.).
• The use of information and communication technology (ICT) provides government with a direct communication channel to the public. For instance, social media can foster democracy by allowing for greater citizen participation, knowledge of government actions, and more opportunities for engagement. This is facilitated by a two-way flow of information (Graham, 2014).
• The literature does not highlight specific issues that relate to gender or disability.

The review concludes with 4 country case studies - from Zimbabwe, South Africa, India, and Mexico. One finding is that governments sometimes use their advertising budgets to undermine media independence and discourage critical reporting.