African Communication Research 3(3): Bribery and Corruption in African Journalism

African Communication Research in a peer-reviewed journal which seeks to help bring African communication researchers into dialogue and debate about their common efforts with the aim to strengthen African theories and methods around communication for development. It is published three times a year by the Faculty of Social Sciences and Communications at St. Augustine University of Tanzania, Mwanza, Tanzania.

The focus of this issue is on bribery and corruption in African journalism. It includes the following chapters:

Review Article:
Research on brown envelope journalism in the African media - by Terje S. Skjerdal
Abstract: "This article gives an overview of past and contemporary research on the “brown envelope” phenomenon in African journalism and documents local terminology and appropriation. The research literature on the phenomenon is growing, coinciding with the alleged increase of informal incentives in African journalism practice. The article discusses how the research tradition has invariably interpreted brown envelope journalism in light of the professional and societal atmosphere. It is argued that the research body has clustered around four main topics: documentation of brown envelope journalism; consideration of the impact of poor economic conditions; analysis of the political and social influence; and discussion of ethical and professional concerns. Three directions for further research are suggested, encouraging further empirical, anthropological and philosophical studies on brown envelope practices with the view to interrogate the phenomenon as an exemplar of wider professional and ethical issues." 

Business journalism ethics in Africa: A comparative study of newsrooms in South Africa, Kenya and Zimbabwe - by Admire Mare and Robert Brand
Abstract: "This article aims to provide an insight into the state of business journalism ethics in Africa, firstly, through an examination of newsroom ethical policies and secondly through an exploration of the way in which African business journalists negotiate ethical decision-making in their day-to-day news processing practices. The researchers employed document analysis and semi-structured interviews to examine Business Day in South Africa, Business Daily in Kenya and Financial Gazette in Zimbabwe. In these African countries, business journalism has been steadily growing since the late 1960s, fuelled by the presence of robust stock exchanges and increasing debate on the issue of business journalism ethics. The research found that while all three newspapers had clear ethical guidelines in place and editors and journalists recognized the importance of ethical behavior, ethical practice did not always follow. This is largely due to the precarious economic basis of news organizations, lack of effective monitoring, and a pervasive culture of unethical behavior at some sites." 

When your “take home” can hardly take home: Moonlighting and the quest for economic survival in the Zimbabwean press - by Hayes Mawindi Mabweazara
Abstract: "Using empirical data from in-depth interviews with journalists drawn from across the Zimbabwean mainstream press, this paper examines how the Zimbabwean economic and political context has, over the years, nurtured an environment in which journalists “illicitly” incorporate extra paid work (for other news organisations) into their daily work routines as a way of supplementing their poor salaries and surviving the economic challenges facing the country. The paper argues that this practice, commonly referred as “moonlighting”, points to the challenges that the material realities of working as a journalist for a poor salary imposes on African journalists. These conditions not only differentiate African journalists from their counterparts in the economically developed countries of the North, but also highlight how the conditions of material deprivation tend to subvert conventionalized notions of professionalism and ethical standards. The paper further contends that moonlighting also articulates the consequences of a restricted media environment in which stories by local journalists that critique government policy and expose social ills must find space in “independent” and foreign news organizations..." 

Zambian PR practitioner’s perspectives on “brown envelopes” and freebies: Working through the confusion - by Twange Kasoma
Abstract: "Existing studies on “brown envelopes” and freebies in journalistic practice in Africa have mainly focused on understanding the phenomenon from the perspective of the “receivers” (journalists). Largely ignored has been the perspective of the “givers”. One such “giver” that the journalists have cited is the PR practitioner. The purpose of this exploratory study, therefore, was to examine the phenomenon from the perspective of PR practitioners. In-depth interviews conducted with 15 PR practitioners in Zambia showed that while they perceived “brown envelopes” as unethical, unprofessional and detested any association with them, they were surprisingly responsive to freebies. The reason for their responsiveness was threefold: (1) The PR practitioners perceived freebies as an inevitable offshoot of the interdependent relationship they shared with journalists; (2) the PR practitioners perceived freebies as part and parcel of their news management function; and (3) the PR practitioners perceived freebies as instrumental in achieving their boundaryspanning role." 

The growing influence of bribery in Ethiopian journalism- by Birhanu Olana Dirbaba
Abstract: "This study reveals that bribery, including gifts of plots of land as well as money, is widespread among journalists in Ethiopia and is spreading to supervisors and assignment editors, including those in the upper leadership. The study unearthed five major mechanisms of diffusion of bribery among journalists: continuing older traditions, sources inducing journalists to accept bribes, organizational resource constraints, coaching by older colleagues and social interaction among friends. Even though further research is required to see whether cultural factors trigger and intensify bribery, it is suggested that the influence of cultural traditions of greeting enticements are minimal as compared to political and economic pressures. The study identifies as the major harmful influences of bribery are that it thwarts creativity, generates antagonistic relationships, and challenges democratic professionalism in Ethiopian journalism. Overall, the study found that bribery has become a dangerous threat hampering the development of more open, competitive and democratic professional journalism in Ethiopia." 

Brown envelopes and the need for ethical re-orientaion: Perceptions of Nigerian journalists - by Chinenye Nwabueze
Abstract: Operating in a depressed economy, Nigerian journalists are often faced with the ethical dilemma of accepting gifts or gratifications at the expense of ethical tenets of their profession. The practice of accepting gratifications popularly referred to as the brown envelope syndrome has created a perennial credibility problem for the profession in Nigeria. This research work was aimed at finding out from practicing journalists what their perception of the brown envelope syndrome is, including their views regarding why the syndrome has continued to exist in the profession. By means of a survey of practicing journalists, it was discovered that the basic reason behind the continued existence of brown envelopes in the profession is the orientation of journalists. Most of the journalists see nothing wrong with the acceptance of brown envelopes. It is recommended that the welfare of professionals should be improved to provoke a change in the perception and attitude towards the acceptance of brown envelopes." 

A critical view of the Kenyan media system through the perspective of the journalist
by Elisabet Helander
Abstract: This article focuses on how political reporting is perceived by the Kenyan media practitioners themselves. By thematically analyzing 15 individual semistructured interviews conducted with a broad spectrum of journalists and editors in Nairobi, it is possible to uncover the difficulties they face and how it relates to the structure of the media system. The responses help to illustrate the relation between the structure of the media and the practice of journalism in a recently liberalized environment. The issues that run through most of the interviews are the aspects of the political economy of mainstream media, and the ethical problem of so-called “brown envelopes” and other corrupt practices."

Tanzanian journalists’ ambivalent perception of their ethics: A “Jekyll and Hyde” occupation - by Denis Mpagze and Robert A. White
Abstract: This exploratory study shows that Tanzanian journalists have a negative perception of themselves as an occupational group with low ethical standards and believe that most journalists would easily accept a bribe to falsify news reports. At the same time they want to live up to the high levels of truthfulness expected of them. Many journalists experience heavy pressure including bribery from institutions that live by a good image: government ministries, NGOs, finance and business leaders, politicians and foreign companies operating in Tanzania In fact, 78% of those interviewed say they personally have never accepted a bribe. Even if many of the 78% are not revealing their acceptance of bribes or do not consider freebies as bribes, it is a plausible hypothesis that the perception of widespread and frequent acceptance of bribes is questionable and needs much more verification. In effect, the constant contact of journalists with an underworld of corruption tends to generate a split personality of high ideals of truthfulness and continual concessions to sources wanting to hide their lack of public accountability - a Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde occupation. Clearly, however, Tanzanian journalists are poorly instructed regarding 1) the ethics of bribery, 2) what constitutes bribery and 3) the distortion in news reports caused by bribery."